in september hundreds foreigners began to converge Vienna capital city Austrian Empire Many were members European royalty kings archdukes princes and their wives accompanied by diplomatic advisers scores servants Their congenial host was emperor Francis I who never tired regaling s guests with concerts glittering balls sumptuous feasts countless hunting parties One participant remembered Eating fireworks public illuminations For eight or ten days haven t been able work at all What life course not every waking hour spent pleasure during this gathering of notables known history as Congress These people also representatives states that had fought Napoleon real business arrange final peace settlement after almost decade war June they finally completed task forces upheaval unleashed French revolutionary Napoleonic wars temporarily quieted rulers sought restore stability reestablishing much old order Europe ravaged hv Kings landed aristocrats Ind bureaucratic elite regained control over domestic governm lene internationally conservatism tried maintain new status quo some even used military force intervene internal aff IS other countries desire ci rush revolutions But Western world changed it would readily go back system New ideologies especially liberalism n tonalism both products initiated France become too powertul be contained Not content change gave rise first revolts revo Jutions periodically chook then widespread Some the revolutionaries successful most Although usually appeared have prevailed apparent its numbered his perception reinforced br he changes wrought Industrial Revolution Together dual made impossible return prerevolutionar Purope Nevertheless although these events ushered what historians like call modern remnants remained amid immediate response defeat contain revolution restoring Peace Settlement In March before defeated four major enemies Great Britain Austria Prussia Russia agreed remain united only but ensure After Quadruple Alliance restored Bourbon monarchy person Louis XVIII meet congress September leader for eign minister Prince Klemens von Metternich KLAY menss fun MET ayr nikh An experienced diplomat conceited self assured described himself memoirs There is wide sweep about my mind am always above beyond preoccupation pub lic men cover ground vaster than can see keep myself from saying twenty times day How right how wrong are PRINCIPLE LEGITIMACY claimed guided principle legitimacy To rees tablish considered necessary legitimate monarchs preserve tradi tional institutions This already done Spain restoration Bourbons well num ber Italian where returned thrones Elsewhere however largely ignored completely overshadowed more practical considerations power treatment Poland which laid claim illustrates approach allowed Polish territory nominally independent kingdom three quarters size duchy Warsaw estab lished Romanov dynasty hereditary guaranteed independence foreign policy itself under Russian As compensation lands lost received two fifths Saxony Ger man Westphalia east bank Rhine compensated loss Netherlands being given northern provinces Lom bardy Venetia vuh NEE shuh Map A NEW BALANCE POWER making territorial rearrangements diplomats believed forming balance prevent any one country dominating example bal ance gains strength ened According arrangement clearly avoided great danger completing systems defense monarchies form an unconquerable barrier against enterprises conquer ing prince might perhaps once again occupy throne Considerations dictated allied significantly weakened fear upset so strong conferees attempted establish defensive barriers possible expansion north created enlarged composed former Dutch Republic Belgium ruler King William house Orange southeast Piedmont officially part king dom Sardinia eastern frontier strengthened giving along British least expected bulwark central league German Germanic Confederation replace escape Elba hundred midst delayed negotiations did alter agreement It decided punish enthusiastic borders pushed those nation forced pay indemnity accept army occupation five years established Con gress managed avoid general conflict century Ideology Conservatism arrangements beginning con servative reaction determined liberal alist kind ideology box p political phi losophy dates when Edmund Burke wrote Reflections radical republi democratic ideas maintained society a contract state ought nothing better partnership trade pepper coffee taken up temporary interest dis solved fancy between living dead born No generation has destroy nership each duty transmit next advised violent overthrow government reject Sudden unacceptable mean there should gradual evolutionary improvements The Frenchman Joseph de Maistre MESS truh influential spokesman counterrevolutionary authoritarian De espoused restora tion regarded divinely sanctioned institution Only absolute could guarantee chaos generated movements Despite differences conservatives held gen eral body beliefs They favored obedience author ity organized religion crucial social hated upheavals unwilling either demands civil liberties representative governments nationalistic aspirations era community took precedence individual rights must ordered tradition best guide philosophy supported heredi try bureaucracies landowning aris tocracies revived churches Protestant Catholic conservative dominant domestically Conservative Domination Concert powers led them develop means constructed accord grew out reaffirmation November renewed com mitment Bonapartist conferences cuss common interests examine measures judged helpful maintenance accordance periodic meetings congresses Aix la Chapelle ex lah shah PELL far said prettier little draw add became quintuple alliance proved less pleasant session Troppau TROP ow called autumn deal outbreak Italy revolt directed Ferdinand VII southern another Naples Sicily sparked rebellion soon spread Pied mont INTERVENTION disturbed because saw threat domination peninsula At pro posed protocol intervention read States undergone Government due results threaten ipso facto cease excluded until situation gives guarantees legal If owing such situations threatens Powers bind themselves peaceful if need arms bring guilty into bosom * meant send armies refused agree arguing intention interfere affairs except Ignoring mer third Laibach LY bahkh January authorized sending troops crushed moved suppress rebels fourth postwar conference Verona October same invade crush VI spring monarch success came price broken down rejected And failed thwart keeping conti nental interfering Latin America REVOLT LATIN AMERICA North freed eigh tenth American hands Spanish Portuguese By eighteenth Enlightenment ideals stemming rev alution influence Cre ole elites descendants Europeans permanent inhabitants principles equality eyes law free presS very attractive Sons Creoles Simón Bolivar MOHN buh LEE var Venezuela losé San Martin hon SAY san mar TEEN Argentina amne leaders movement attended universities thev imbibed Am joined growing class merchants resented Portu gal nineteenth provided opportunity When Bonaparte toppled Portugal authorty Spaniards colonial empires senes enabled tc Simon long George Washington Born wealthy Venezu elan family introduced young While Rome witness coro committed South lead bitter struggle parts acclaimed liberator definitively He went liberate Colombia Ecuador Peru Alreadv president time federation included busy liberating lose concentrating efforts continent Son Span ish officer pursued career serving learned liberation move ment native abandoned homeland Martín removed anv high Andes Mountains amazing feat Two thirds pack mules horses died difficult journey soldiers suffered lack oxygen severe cold while crossing mountain passes miles sea level arrival Chile surprised whose routed Battle Chacabuco chahk ah BOO koh on February Lima center authority Convinced unable complete welcomed me height happiness end orders whom South owes freedom Destin otherwise resign oneself Highly disappointed Mar tin left death outside Paris Meanwhile crushing last significant Ayacucho ya KOO choh December Uru guay Paraguay Bolivia Central divided republics Guatemala El Salvador Honduras Costa Rica Nicaragua Earlier regent Brazil declared continental flushed rebellions use tre ops opposition Eager gain access entire investment proposed joint action United interference Distrustful motives President lames Monroe acted alone guaran teeing nations warning further World famous Doctrine Actually Ships important rnan words Britains navy stood invasion continen tal extremely reluctant challenge naval Political economic indepen dence patterns quickly reestablished instead now domi nating economy large numbers investors poured funds mining industry Old pat terns reemerged Because served source raw materials foodstuffs industrializing exports wheat tobacco wool sugar hides Atlantic noticeably increased finished consumer goods textiles imported increasing quantities causing decline indus trial production emphasis export importing ensured ongoing GREEK double edged sword Designed support pow ers found do Greeks revolted Ottoman Turkish masters subject Muslim language Greck Orthodox faith revival Greek national sentiment added grow Ing terrible yoke oppression transformed noble cause outpouring combined fleet Greece armada year later invaded Moldavia Wallachia Treaty Adrianople ended Russlan/Turkish Russlans protectorate treaty allow decide fate Independent royal Until suc cessful still intact Between conserva tive evident waS throughout worked GREAT BRITAIN RULE TORIES tocratic classes dominated houses Parliament governed Suffrage elections House Commons controlled gentry restricted unequal light chang distribution population Large industrial cities Birmingham Manchester no landowners pocket rotten boroughs Chapter seats yet powerless practice crown ruling party factions Tories Whigs Both receive middle Tory ministers existing electoral Popular discontent eco nomic difficulties falling agricultural prices Corn Law imposed extraordinarily tariffs grain Though benefited bread rose substantially conditions working Mass protest nasty turn squadron cav alry attacked crowd demonstrators Saint Peter Fields deaths eleven Peterloo Massacre detractors take repressive govern dissemination pamphlets among poor extending police search arrest minor reforms meeting Reform chapter RESTORATION IN FRANCE understood brought Napole onic eras accepted Civil Code recogni property purchased confiscated preserved bicameral twO legislature consisting Chamber Peers chosen Deputies electorate slightly fewer grudging moderation opposed lib erals eager extend group ultraroyalists criticized willingness promise retain many features ultras hoped monarchical privileged aristocracy Church position initiative passed succeeded brother count Artois ar TWAH Charles X granted Moreover religious encouraged reestablish educational Pub outrage fed newspapers ministerial responsibility responsible violated commitment deputies dissolve brink ITALIAN STATES AND SPAIN nine including ruled Savoy Sicilies Papal handful small duch relatives Lombardy Much reactionary smother nationalist secret societies motivated dreams Carbonari kar NAH ree charcoal burners contin ed conspire plan observe constitution functioning elected parliamentary assem bly Cortes reneged promises tore dissolved persecuted officers upper intellectu als capitulated prom ised rescue April flee Madrid August REPRESSION CENTRAL EUROPE particularly Habsburg empire chief agent Met ternich played role boasted You Minister Police eye everything My contacts escapes spies everywhere searching evidence plots nationalism emerged initially weak tended aristocratic autocratic centralized recognized existence thirty sovereign Holy Roman varied considerably formed confedera executive cen tral organ federal diet needed consent member virtually serve instrument repress within Initially Germans unity looked leadership During Napo leonic Frederick III following advice Baron Heinrich Stein Karl Hardenberg instituted insti tutional abolition serfdom municipal through town councils expan sion primary secondary schools universal conscription include creation legislative assembly repre sentative wished tent follow absolutist Liberal limited university professors students latter organize Burschenschaften BOOR shun shahf tuhn student dedicated fostering goal Germany motto Honor Liberty Fatherland inspired Friedrich Ludwig Jahn FREED rikh LOOD vik YAHN gymnastic promote regeneration youth War Liberation encour aged pursue heritage urged followers disrupt lectures views From variety activities alarmed heldat Warburg Castle marking hundredth anni versary Luther Ninety Five Theses burned books written authors deranged assas sinated playwright Karlsbad KARLSS baht Decrees closed censorship press placed close supervision Thereafter flurry activity cooperative multinational collection different peoples vided bond origin Czechs Mag yars Hungarians Slovaks Romanians Slovenes Poles Serbi ans Italians though quarter economically advanced leading governing Essentially imperial service together groups autonomy break apart Still hold His antipa thy understandably grounded realization threatened tear belief own disaster stagnated RUSSIA AUTOCRACY TSARS overwhelmingly rural agri cultural tsar divine Alexander raised Bnlightenment seemed willing make With aid adviser Michael Speransky spyuh RAHN skee relaxed prisoners reformed rapid strides developing indue retused grant serts adopted doctrine divergenc es opinion classined liberals face trom noblty INapo leon Decame restraint economir reverted strict arbitrary Soon Opposition C Alevander arose societes Northern Union anstocrats Onic aware intellectuals alienated ack academic universites tvored establishment consututional aboli non sertdom sudden Ale vander offered Achougn Alexanders Constantine heir renounced claims favor Nicholas abdication hower ver ensuing contusion Decem Der rebelled accession Decembrist Revolt oval executed reactionarv rebel bureaucracy sec Third Section chancellery sweeping Thev deported suspicious dangerous persons surveillance toreigners reported regularly Matching home abroad rest reign help none Conte mporares caled him m@ revolon Ideologies Change FOCUS OUESTION main tenets utopian socialism play Burope half century? ascendancy MARRALISM Also classical economics ECOnOMIC tenet concent laissez faire interrupt dlav natural supply demand restrain liber restrict primar functions protection indi viduals construction works foo expensive individuals undertake liberty ultimately maximum good number benetit welfare societv case agamt interterence matters greatly enhanced Thomas Malthus MAWL thuss Essay Principles Population argued unchecked increases geometric rate food correspond ingly slower arithmetic resul will overpopulation starvation human race growth check nature imposes labor ewosure seasons extreme poverty bad nursing chil dren excesses kinds diseases epidemics plague famine Thus misery sim ply inevitable result o wits developed David Ricardo Economy iron wages Following increase workers fall belon subsistence reduce Consequently declines encourages larger fami lies cycle repeated raising arbitrarily pointless since accomplish perpetuate vicious circle tor PolITical LIBERALISM Politically depended embodied series politi cal philosophies set Chief protec basic speech All Liberalism freedoms document Bill Rights Declaration owed Man Citizen addition Ameri toleration advocated separation church Revolutions addi ton parliament laws qualified voters constituted constitutional limits despotism constitutions give branch answer rather Liberals suf frage entitled equal vote office open met certain qualifications tied extension voting share let lower democrats prominent advocates English philosopher John Stuart Mill published classic statement subjects protected censorsno tyranny majonty instrumental expanding meaning becoming supporter womens nghts auen incude women vouIeg reform bill essay titled Subiection Women earlier wife Harriet Taylor ame subordination sex Ditterences natures simply tu practices education coul achieve wanted introduce coc peration superior compe tition characterized early capitalism late Marxists impractical comptuously labeled theorists socialists terr endured private tha competitive spirit eliminatine things creating organization thought environment humanity achieved Early ways accom plish centh Ior Nationalism powerful Nationalsm awaren historical traditions customs communit constitutes slalC Or unit becomes focus lovalty popular nationalists believe nationality FOURIER create vol untary associations demonstrate advantager Fourier SHAHRL RYAY model commu niues phalansteries coon cratives ideally Communali housed phalanstery fuh LAN stuh live mutual beneft Work assignments rotated frequently relieve ~ undesirable tasks wOrKEIS financial backing untested Subject determination subiect minonty exsting nationally Rv token inde pendent Hungarian breakup multi AWEA Rrirish cotton manufacturer Robert Owen humans reveal true goo dness lived envi ronment Lanark Scotland transforming squalid factory flourishing healthy Harmony Indi ana DIckering eventually destroyed dream disciples woman named Frances Wright bought slaves Nashoba Tennessee tailed continued ha rd nationa ism allies Most loer realized boundar ies coincide nationalities obtained linked broader BANG Blanc LWEEBLAHNH vet socialist Organization prob lems assistance Denouncing competition evils workshops manufacture sale finance operate Socialism pitiful condi tions slums mines factories term associated Marx ist analysis product FEMALE SUPPORTERS plans reconstruc attracted female supporters reordering Zoé Gatti Gamond zoh AY gah TEE duh MOHNH Belgian follower her supposed provide job opportunities collective GWIN dorf newspaper emancipa responsibilities child care housecleaning comte Christian values scientific utopianism participated activism motion ideal Suzanne Voilquin ZAHN vwahl TRISTAN Flora Tristan TRISS tun foster synthesis feminism She traveled preaching Her Worker application reconstruct Workers sure you enough equity justice inscribe your Charter few points just outlined ded aration wom en pass custom inscribed front book ABSOLUTE EQUALITY Then brothers v envisioned hope transform civilization Fora Ike contemporares impracticality groundwork attacks reaching nowever fringe QUESTIONS present respond? causes why fail? Beginning successfully places others Finally wave lutionary fervor nationalsts think verge caung Another produced victory point seize July issued edicts Ordinances rigid reduced preparation actions Liber defied articles fueled Barricades provi sional moderate propertied dera hastily appealed Philippe duke Orléans cousin constin fled bourgeois rule dressed suits hats Constitutional bourgeoisie Financial sufficiently barely guaranteeing wealthiest sented stopping place progress lesser Parisian helped disappointment concentrated urban areas Terrible crises levels unemployment worker unrest sporadic onlours violence Even direction rapidly Party Movement Adolphe Thiers DAWLF TYAYR pursuit active franchise Resistance Francois Guizot trahnh SWAH gee ZOH reached perfect sinstitutional cooperated suppressing pursuing favoring wealthier manutacturers tradespeople Revolutionary Outbursts Supporters Revo lution outbursts effort stronger border area merger sat Belgians convincing Euro pean Leopold Saxe Coburg designated constitu scenarios sent uprising insurgents get Russians oppressive dictatorship Revolu catalyze Inaus objected corrupt concessions longer election enacted intense Opposing View REFORM ACT Act explicit rec ognition disenfranchised fifty six enfranchised forty towns reapportioned communities voice qualification € annual rent retained vot figure represented primarily artisans composition Com mons noted step LEGISLATION witnessed considerable legislation driving leg islation halted worst abuses instituting regulation industrialists manufacturers behind Poor based theory unemployed laziness paupers rem edy wretched choose Those crowded workhouses intentionally miserable find gainful employment piece involved repeal Laws Richard Cobden Bright Anti League lowering abolishing princi ples Repeal Sir Peel persuaded associates abandon without crisis forefront satisfied successes erupted Yet spark ablaze fires Tsar lamented Queen Victoria remains standing Europe? YET ANOTHER FRENCH REVOLUTION depression hardship peas ants Scandals graft corruption rite persistent retusal suffrage angered refuse Images Everyday Life Radical republicans agitated dismissal Since forbidden stage rallies banquet Almost seventy banquets winter grand culminating planned forbade anyway threw barricades ministry abdicated provisional cans constituent convened manhood suftrage sioned run fact unskilled jobs leaf raking ditch digging unem ployed cost program increasingly burdensome split repub licans radi National Assembly avowed monarchists radicals gained hun dred enrolled emptying treasury frightening moderates responded closing decision streets Four bloody fighting ba vert La poire tapee Tine Art Images/ Thousands killed thou sand colony Algeria Africa ratified republic Second uni cameral male presidency nephew resoundingly months Within Emperor GERMANIC News triggered cries caused constitutons pr fury til cessions appease abolish pLUM ise counterpart sutrage dep utes Frankfurt seat Its purpose fulfill st prepa Well educated articulate delegates lawyers bureaucrats Frankturt Assemblv ahead certainly respective aroused controversy claiming embroiled stickv debate Gross deutsch GROHS doichM Big solution province proponents Kleindeutsch KLYN doich Small excluding Prussian problem Austrians withdrew leaving field short IV gruffly offer title ordert awaited firm Asin conservalves divisions oderate frst cam e une General Alfred Windisch grätz VIN dish grets ruthlessly suppressed Czech Prague Viennese mob Windischgratz pretext attack month feebleminded Ferd nand abdicate vigorously Hungary wer Kossuth infervention alsr ocratic prop ertied numerous REVOLTS failure revolu tionary uprisings unification families Italys risorgimento SOR iee toh resurgence Giuseppe Mazzini ioo ZEP mant SEE nee founded